Foundations of Semiconductors

- Overview

A semiconductor is a material that is between the conductor and insulator in ability to conduct electrical current. In many cases their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by introducing impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure.

Semiconductors or integrated circuits (ICs) are microelectronic devices made primarily of silicon or germanium. Although small, these chips contain thousands of different components that work together to process information. The conductivity of a semiconductor can be altered by adding specific impurities or by changing its temperature. 

Of the different types of semiconductor devices, logic chips, analog chips, memory chips, and optoelectronic devices dominate the market. The p-n junction is the main type of semiconductor device, consisting of an N-type and a P-type semiconductor, forming a diode.

Semiconductor materials are used in mobile phones, laptops, and all electronic devices. Their unique properties make them an integral part of electronic devices, playing a vital role in our connected world.

The revolution of the digital age was significantly influenced by the advancement of inorganic semiconductors.

Please refer to the following for more information:

Wikipedia: Semiconductor

- Key Concepts

Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity between that of a conductor (like copper) and an insulator (like glass). They are crucial for modern electronics, forming the basis for devices like transistors and integrated circuits. Key aspects include their energy band structure, charge carriers (electrons and holes), and the effects of doping and carrier transport. 

• Energy Bands and Bandgap: Electrons in a semiconductor can only exist in certain energy levels, forming bands. The bandgap is the energy difference between the highest occupied valence band and the lowest unoccupied conduction band. This bandgap determines the material's conductivity.
• Charge Carriers (Electrons and Holes): Electrons in the conduction band are free to move and contribute to electrical current. Holes, which are essentially the absence of an electron in the valence band, also contribute to current, but in the opposite direction.
• Doping: Intrinsic semiconductors (pure forms like silicon) have a low conductivity. Doping, the intentional addition of impurities, can dramatically increase conductivity by creating either n-type semiconductors (with excess electrons) or p-type semiconductors (with excess holes).
• Carrier Transport: Electrons and holes move through the semiconductor due to either drift (due to an electric field) or diffusion (due to a concentration gradient).
• Junctions: The interface between different types of semiconductors (e.g., n-type and p-type) forms a junction, which is the basis for devices like diodes and transistors.

- Semiconductor Materials

Silicon and germanium are widely used due to their availability and relatively large bandgaps. Gallium arsenide is another important semiconductor, particularly for high-frequency applications.  

Semiconductor Devices: 

• Diodes: Allow current flow in one direction, a fundamental component in rectifiers and signal processing.
• Transistors: Control the flow of current between two terminals, acting as switches or amplifiers. They are the building blocks of most electronic circuits.
• Solar Cells: Convert light into electricity.
• Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Emit light when current flows through them.

Semiconductor Fabrication:

• Semiconductor devices are typically fabricated on thin slices of semiconductor material called wafers.
• The fabrication process involves a series of steps, including cleaning, deposition, lithography, etching, and doping.

- Semiconductors: Building Blocks of Modern Computing

Semiconductors are a fundamental building block of modern computing. Also known as microchips, they are tiny electronic switches that process commands and run programs in computers and other devices. Semiconductors make machines smaller, faster and easier to operate. Thanks to chips, for example, a smartphone today has more processing power than the computer NASA used on the first moon landing. 

The semiconductor industry is critical to every industry across the globe. Innovations in the semiconductor industry have fueled the digital revolution, advancing countless industries, from personal computing to smart home devices to virtual reality. In fact, from 1995 to 2015, an estimated $3 trillion in global gross domestic product (GDP) was directly attributable to innovation in this area.

With the digital revolution affecting nearly every aspect of our lives, the semiconductor industry has grown substantially, with global sales exceeding $500 billion in 2021. Over the next decade, further innovation in chip technology is expected to drive growth in many areas including 5G, artificial intelligence, self-driving cars and virtual reality.

Looking ahead, analysts predict an average annual growth rate of 6% to 8% for the semiconductor industry through 2030. McKinsey predicts that this unsung hero of modern technology could soon become a $1 trillion industry. 

Interestingly, nearly 70% of this projected growth is expected to be driven by just three industries: automotive, computing and data storage, and wireless communications.

- Semiconductors: An Engine of Innovation

Semiconductors are widely recognized as a driving force behind innovation, powering numerous technologies and impacting diverse sectors. Their ability to enable complex computing, communication, and other advanced functions makes them essential for modern life and future technologies.

Here's a more detailed look at why semiconductors are considered an engine of innovation:

1. Enabling Modern Technologies: 

• Computing: Semiconductors, especially microprocessors, are the foundation of computers, smartphones, and data centers, enabling processing power and memory for complex tasks.
• Communication: They are crucial for cellular networks, internet infrastructure, and other communication systems, facilitating rapid data transfer and connectivity.
• Everyday Devices: Semiconductors are embedded in a vast array of consumer electronics, appliances, and other devices, making them an essential component of modern life.

2. Driving Innovation Across Industries: 

• Automotive: Semiconductors are vital for advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), electric vehicles (EVs), and connected car technologies, enhancing safety and efficiency.
• Aerospace and Defense: They power critical systems in aircraft, satellites, and military equipment, enabling precision control and advanced capabilities.
• Healthcare: Semiconductors are used in medical imaging, diagnostic equipment, and implantable devices, improving healthcare outcomes.
• Clean Energy: They play a role in solar panels, energy storage systems, and other renewable energy technologies.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI advancements rely heavily on specialized semiconductor chips, driving innovation in machine learning, data analysis, and robotic systems.

3. Impact on Economic Growth and Competitiveness: 

• U.S. Economic Competitiveness: The semiconductor industry is a major driver of U.S. economic growth and global competitiveness, creating jobs and fostering technological advancements.
• National Security: Semiconductor technology is critical for national security, enabling advanced defense systems and intelligence gathering.
• Global Leadership: The U.S. semiconductor industry has historically been a global leader, but faces challenges from other countries.

4. Ongoing Innovation and Challenges: 

• Moore's Law: While the trend of doubling the number of transistors on a chip every two years (Moore's Law) is slowing down, new device architectures and technologies are emerging.
• Advanced Packaging: Advanced packaging techniques are crucial for integrating multiple chips and creating more powerful and compact devices.
• Emerging Technologies: Research and development in areas like quantum computing and bioelectronics are paving the way for future semiconductor innovations.
• Supply Chain Challenges: Geopolitical tensions and supply chain disruptions have highlighted the importance of diversifying semiconductor production and fostering domestic manufacturing.

5. The Future of Semiconductors: 

• Continued Growth: The semiconductor industry is expected to continue growing, driven by the increasing demand for technology and innovation.
• AI-Driven Innovation: AI is expected to play a significant role in accelerating semiconductor innovation, including new chip designs, manufacturing processes, and applications.
• Focus on Sustainability: Semiconductor innovation is also increasingly focused on energy efficiency, sustainability, and resource management.

- Beginning of The Silicon Age (or the Information Age)

"The transistor was the product of basic research with a clear technological goal, but although the new technology was anticipated, its revolutionary impact was not." -- [Ian M. Ross, President, AT&T Bell Laboratories.] The invention of the transistor was one of the most important technical developments of the century. It has had profound impact on the way we live and the way we work.

In the 1970s, Texas Instruments and AT&T Bell Laboratories pushed electronics into the silicon age. In the Beginning: Gordon Teal directed the development of the silicon transistor at Texas Instruments. William Shockley led the team at AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories that developed the very first transistor, which was made of germanium. 

TI’s silicon device with its three long leads became famous, making the Texas upstart the sole supplier of silicon transistors for several years in the 1950s. Morris Tanenbaum at Bell Labs actually made the first silicon transistor, but he felt “it didn’t look attractive” from a manufacturing point of view. 

The Digital Revolution refers to the advancement of technology from analog electronic and mechanical devices to the digital technology available today. The era started to during the 1980s and is ongoing. The Digital Revolution also marks the beginning of the Information Era. The Digital Revolution is sometimes also called the Third Industrial Revolution.

- The Digital Evolution: The Third Industrial Revolution

The Digital Revolution (also known as the Third Industrial Revolution) is the shift from mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began in the latter half of the 20th century, with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record-keeping, that continues to the present day. Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during this period. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age. 

Central to this revolution is the mass production and widespread use of digital logic, MOSFETs (MOS transistors), and integrated circuit (IC) chips, and their derived technologies, including computers, microprocessors, digital cellular phones, and the Internet. These technological innovations have transformed traditional production and business techniques.  

- The Future of Electronics

Emerging technologies are those whose development and practical applications are mostly unrealized. The branch of electronics, in particular, plays a crucial role in signal processing, information processing, and telecommunications. This is one stream that holds promises and is expected to have many innovations and inventions in the years to come. 

Electronics is the fascinating world of electrical circuits that involve components such as sensors, diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. In simple language, it covers complex electronic systems and instruments, such as modern laptops and smartphones. 

We're reaching the limits of what we can do with conventional silicon semiconductors. In order for electronic components to continue getting smaller we need a new approach.  

- Emerging Semiconductor Technologies

Emerging semiconductor technologies include 3D transistors, AI-powered chips, and advanced packaging techniques. These technologies are driving innovations in electronics, including artificial intelligence (AI), 5G networks, and autonomous vehicles. 

Examples of emerging semiconductor technologies:

• 3D transistors and gate-all-around (GAA) architectures: Enable higher performance and energy efficiency in smaller chips.
• Gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC) materials: Offer better heat resistance and efficiency than traditional silicon-based components.
• AI-powered chips: Enable faster data processing and intelligent decision-making.
• 3D stacking and wafer-level packaging: Transform semiconductor technology to meet modern electronics demands.

- Industry 4.0 and The Semiconductor Industry

Industry 4.0 takes innovative developments that are available today and integrates them to produce a modern, smarter production model. It merges real and virtual worlds and is based on Cyber-physical Systems (CPS) and Cyber-physical Production Systems (CPPS). The model was created to increase business agility, enable cost-effective production of customized products, lower overall production costs, enhance product quality and increase production efficiency. It brings with it new levels of automation and automated decision making that will mean faster responses to production needs and much greater efficiency.

For the semiconductor industry, the high cost of wafers make attaching electronic components to each wafer carrier or FOUP (Front Opening Unified Pod) completely viable and presents huge benefits in increased production efficiency. Adding intelligence to materials and products facilitates the fully decentralized operations model associated with Industry 4.0. With devices communicating with each other, the increased flexibility and productivity this model produces will make it possible to meet an increasing demand for greater manufacturing mixes and individualized products at much lower costs.  

For the production of semiconductors in particular, the very nature of the product being manufactured means there may also be opportunity and added benefit for some devices to hold their own information without the need for additional electronics. The information gathered from the decentralized model and analytical software used in Industry 4.0 also makes it easier to account for the cost of each item, resulting in better intelligence for business strategy and product pricing. 

Although equipment used in the production of semiconductors already have sensors and transmit intelligent information into wider systems, the concept of the CPPS using the IoT adds a new level of simplicity to this idea. The cost of production within the semiconductor industry also means that even marginal variable improvements through the increased use of big data analytics will have huge financial benefits. 

The Internet of Things (IoT) will further enhance flexibility in measurement and actuation possibilities and free manufacturers from the time and cost associated with changes to sophisticated interfaces on production equipment. 

[Bruges, Belgium]

- Microelectronics and Digital Integrated Circuits (ICs)

-  The Future of Semiconductor and Electronics Technology